Soviet social scientists have created an extensive literature covering the formation and improvement of a mature socialist society, the economic and social processes taking place in it, national and cultural development. Nevertheless, the study of the problems of developed socialism, including the social and class structure of Soviet society, remains one of the most urgent tasks. The dynamics of changes in the social and professional structure of the working class, collective farm peasantry and people's intelligentsia of the Union republics in the available works 1 are considered mainly in methodological terms without sufficient involvement of specific material. In addition, the publications of the second half of the 60s and 70s did not take into account, of course, the social processes that took place in subsequent years. Changes in the economic and social spheres of life of the autonomous republics, the general and special features of their development within the framework of the new historical community - the Soviet people, have not been analyzed in the literature.
There are no special generalizing studies on the social structure of the Dagestan ASSR. The available works mainly take separately the social changes that have taken place in the working class2 , the peasantry3, and the intelligentsia4 of the republic. Taken, vpro-
1 Of the newest works, see: Modern ethnic processes in the USSR, Moscow 1977; Convergence of the socio-class structure of Soviet nations and nationalities, Moscow 1977; Trends in the socio-class structure of Soviet nations and nationalities, Moscow 1978; Experience of ethnosociological research of the way of life, Moscow 1980; Kulichenko M. I. Rastsvet and convergence of nations in the USSR M. 1981; Rutkevich M. N. Formation of social homogeneity. M. 1982; Senyavsky S. L. Social structure of the Soviet society in the conditions of developed socialism (1961-1980). M. 1982; Arutyunyan Yu. V., Drobizheva L. M. Social structure of the Soviet nations at the present stage. - Voprosy istorii, 1982, N 7; et al.
2 Kabardiev A. A. Quantitative and structural changes in the composition of the working class of Dagestan during the eighth five-year plan. In: Socio-economic and Cultural Transformations in Dagestan (1920-1970). Makhachkala. 1977; Milovanov G. I. Social structure of the working class as a productive force in the modern period (Issues of methodology). In: Changing the social structure of Dagestan under the conditions of Developed Socialism. Makhachkala. 1979; his own. Growth of the cultural and technical level of the rural working class detachment (based on the materials of the DASSR). In: Social development of the rural population of Dagestan. Makhachkala. 1980.
3 Ikhilov M. M. Izmenenie kul'tury i byta kolkhoznogo krestjanstva Dagestan [Changing the culture and way of life of the collective farm peasantry of Dagestan]. - Sotsiologicheskiy sb. Vyp. I. Makhachkala. 1970; Zulpukarov 3. G. Agrarian policy of the CPSU and some social shifts in the Dagestan aul at the present stage. In: Socio-economic development of Dagestan during the Construction of Socialism. Makhachkala. 1978; Magdiev A. Development of agriculture and social progress of the collective farm peasantry. In: Social development of the rural population of Dagestan; et al.
4 Efendiev A.-K. I. On some changes in the professional and qualification composition of workers and intellectuals of Dagestan in the process of communist construction. - Sotsiologicheskiy sb. Issue I.
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what, and the first attempts to address these issues comprehensively, but so far in the most general terms 5 . Below, the author seeks to analyze the changes in the social structure of Dagestan that took place in the 70s with the help of new materials. This is the time of the ninth and tenth five-year plans, when developed socialism gained strength and social processes began to flow more intensively than in previous years. Changes in the social structure in the republic were closely related to the development of its economy and culture, so the article provides data describing changes in industry, agriculture, etc.
During the years of Soviet power, the social structure of all the union and autonomous republics of the USSR has changed qualitatively; in each of them, a modern working class and collective farm peasantry have grown up, their own intelligentsia has been created, and qualified personnel have been trained in all areas of state and public life. This fully applies to the Dagestan ASSR.
By the beginning of the 80s, the republic's industry was characterized by the presence of new industries, including such leading ones that determine scientific and technological progress as machine-building, electrical engineering, metalworking, instrument-making, oil, chemical, and electric power. The total growth of the DASSR's gross industrial output in the 70s was 179% (in the USSR-178% 6), and in the chemical and petrochemical industry-358%, in the electric power industry-294%, in mechanical engineering and metalworking-276%, and in the construction materials industry-198% 7 . High rates of industrial development have led to significant quantitative changes in the composition of the working class of Dagestan.
According to the data for 1979, workers (including junior service personnel and security personnel) had the largest share in the total number of workers in the republic: in the branches of the national economy - 70.7%, in the composition of industrial and production personnel-79% 8 . There were high growth rates of industrial and production personnel and the working class in the leading industries. If the number of industrial and production personnel increased by 124% in the 70s, the growth of the working class was: in the chemical and petrochemical industry-190%, in the electric power industry-165%, in mechanical engineering and metalworking-141%, in the construction materials industry-145%. At the same time, in the traditional light and food industries of Dagestan, this growth was less (138% and 109%, respectively) .9
From 1965 to 1976, the number of workers in the Dagestan ASSR increased by 63.8% .10 The high rate of growth of the working class of the DASSR testifies to the effectiveness of the Leninist national policy of the Communist Party and the Soviet State, which ensured the accelerated development of previously backward regions. But since there are still some problems in the socio-economic development of the republics
5 Magdiev A. To the question of the development of social relations in the conditions of developed socialism. In: Izmenenie sotsial'noi struktury Dagestan v usloviyakh razvitiogo sotsializma [Changing the social structure of Dagestan in the context of developed socialism]. In: Great October and the Triumph of Lenin's National Policy in Dagestan. Makhachkala. 1978.
6 National economy of the USSR in 1980 Stat. yearbook, Moscow, 1981, p. 41.
7 Calculated based on the materials of the current archive of the SU DASSR.
8 National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years. Jubilee statistical collection of Makhachkala. 1981, p. 27, 146.
9 Calculated based on the materials of the current archive of the SU DASSR.
10 The same.
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The XXVI Congress of the CPSU once again emphasized the need for " equalizing social differences... in the territorial plan" p .
In the 70s, the main factors that ensured the high growth rates of the working class of the DASSR remained the construction of new and reconstruction, expansion of existing enterprises. However, if earlier new enterprises appeared mainly in cities with an established industrial base, then in the 70s in the republic, as in a number of other regions of the country, branches of large enterprises began to be established in rural areas - in the villages of Akhty, Botlikh, Khunzakh, etc. 12 . Thanks to this, the working class of Dagestan was replenished with new detachments of rural workers; but what is especially important-at the same time a number of problems specific to the republic were solved: a part of the population of high-mountain regions not employed in the national economy was involved in modern production; working class traditions and urban culture penetrated these areas; roads, cultural institutions, apartments were built at the expense of enterprises with communal facilities, kindergartens, etc.
During the period under review, the number of working-class agrarian groups in the republic increased. This was mainly due to the widespread transformation of collective farms into state farms in Dagestan in the 70s: the number of state farms increased from 32 in 1960 to 266 in 1979, and the number of workers employed in them-from 10.9 thousand to 139 thousand. 13 The ranks of workers were also replenished in connection with the creation of agro-industrial and livestock complexes, the expansion of the network of industrial, construction, commercial, municipal, consumer service enterprises in rural areas, etc.
The growth of the working class, primarily due to the development of industry, is also associated with another important factor-the increase in the urban population of the republic. DASSR is characterized by high natural population growth, but the number of urban residents is growing even more rapidly: if the population of the republic increased from 1163.1 thousand in 1961 to 1648.8 thousand in 1980 (by about 42%), then the urban population - from 345.6 thousand to 657.4 thousand people (by more than 90%); its share in relation to the entire population of the republic increased from 30% to 40% during this period14 . The increase in the share of the urban population, as well as the share of the working class and intelligentsia, is a general trend for all the republics of the country.
Despite the high growth rates of the working class, its share in relation to the entire population of Dagestan remained relatively low. Thus, in 1976, the share of the working class in the country rose to 60.2% 15, while in the republic it was only 20.8% 16 . Consequently, despite the accelerated development of the working class in the republic and the higher growth rates in comparison with those of the all-Union and a number of other republics, its share remains lower than that of the workers in the country as a whole. This determines the task of further growth and strengthening of the ranks of the working class of Dagestan, primarily at the expense of the population of indigenous nationalities.
11 Materials of the XXVI Congress of the CPSU, Moscow, 1981, p. 54.
12 Dagestanskaya pravda, 23. V. 1979.
13 National economy of the Dagestan ASSR to the 50th anniversary of the formation of the USSR. Makhachkala. 1972, p. 60, 136; National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, p. 59, 150.
14 National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, p. 9.
15 Amvrosov A. A. From class differentiation to social homogeneity. Moscow, 1978, p. 106.
16 Calculated from: National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, p. 9; materials of the current archive of the SU DASSR.
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Further development of mechanization and automation of production, improvement of the general education and qualification level of the working class of the republic in the period under review led to serious qualitative changes in its professional structure, an increase in the share of skilled labor, and other significant changes. First of all, this applies to industry. From 1959 to 1979, about 20 new machine-building plants were put into operation in Dagestan, and previously built enterprises were significantly expanded and reconstructed. All this has led to a sharp increase in the production capacity of mechanical engineering. In 1979, compared to 1965, the total output of mechanical engineering and metalworking was 456%. As a result, there were qualitative changes in the structure of the DASSR industry: the share of mechanical engineering and metalworking increased from 16.5% in 1960 to 31.7% in 197917 . Mechanical engineering of the republic now has such important industries that determine the technical progress as instrument making, is distinguished by a high technical level of equipment and highly qualified employees. Every year, hundreds of units of new equipment are installed at the machine-building enterprises of the DASSR, more than 100 new types of machines and devices are mastered and put into production.
The volume of gross output of the chemical industry of the republic also increased significantly in 1979 (almost 30 times as compared to 1960). Such a large enterprise as the Chiryurt plant of phosphorous salts was built. A large group of workers is employed in the oil and gas industry. They annually supply the country with more than 700 thousand tons of oil and about 700 million cubic meters of natural and associated gas18 . The republic's energy capacity is being further increased. The construction of Miatlinskaya (220 thousand kW) and Irganayskaya (800 thousand kW) hydroelectric power stations is underway. Along with the existing hydroelectric power stations, after they are put into operation, they will solve the problem of energy supply not only in Dagestan, but also in the entire North Caucasus region. The construction of such large facilities contributes to the further growth of the ranks of workers - hydraulic builders and power engineers by attracting the local rural population. New working settlements are being created, and the life of a number of mountainous regions is changing.
Scientific and technological progress penetrates all branches of industry in the republic. Computing machines, automated lines and machine tools are widely introduced into production. By the end of the tenth five-year plan, the number of automated and complex-mechanized workshops and sites in Dagestan reached 130, or increased almost 4 times compared to 1967 .19 Maintenance of such sections and automatic lines requires not only skilled workers, but also workers with engineering and technical knowledge. Under the influence of scientific and technological progress, improving the education and culture of the population of the republic, there is an increase in the number of engineering and technical workers and their share in the industrial and production staff, which is also characterized by absolute growth. If in 1965 the share of IT personnel in the total number of industrial and production personnel was 11%, then in 1979 it rose to 13% , while maintaining the share of workers at 79% 20 .
17 Umakhanov M.-S. I. This is internationalism, Moscow, 1980, p. 61; Narodnoe khozyaistvo Dagestanskoi ASSR za 60 let, p. 44.
18 Umakhanov M.-S. I. Uk. soch., pp. 62, 63.
19 Yusupov M. Yu. Industrial Dagestan. In: In the family of peoples-brothers. Makhachkala. 1981, p. 82; National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, p. 20.
20 National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, p. 27.
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At the same time, the growth of mechanization and automation of production and, consequently, the expansion of the sphere of application of skilled labor have not yet led to the complete elimination of low-productivity, unskilled manual labor. A lot of DASSR industrial workers are engaged in this kind of work.
Complete displacement of heavy physical labor, narrowing the scope of unskilled manual labor is one of the most important conditions for increasing the leading role of the working class, improving its social and professional structure. Another factor contributing to the growing role of the working class in public life is the growth of its educational and cultural level. This is indirectly indicated by indicators that characterize the level of education of the urban population. According to census data, the number of citizens with higher, incomplete higher and secondary specialized education per 1,000 employees in the DASSR was 66 in 1959, and 177 in 1970 .21
The higher the educational level of workers, the faster and better they learn new techniques, master related professions, and the more creative their attitude to work becomes. Various forms of professional training (vocational technical schools, team and course training, mentoring, etc.), and the system of distance learning play an important role in solving the problem of further improving their general education and professional level. Educational institutions of the DASSR vocational education system trained about 35,000 skilled workers from 1960 to 1979. Over the same years, more than 145 thousand workers received new professions and specialties on-the-job, and about 332 thousand people improved their qualifications .22
High results have also been achieved in such an important indicator of changes in the working and living conditions of workers as an increase in their income, an increase in material well-being. The average monthly salary of workers in the republic increased from 83.1 rubles in 1965 to 145.9 rubles in 197923 . In addition, during the period under review, benefits for those working in difficult conditions were expanded, taxes were reduced, pension provision was improved, payments from public consumption funds increased, etc.Bonuses were paid from the funds of material incentives for enterprises, the amount of which depended on the specialty of the worker, the quantity and quality of work performed, and length of service. The growth of workers ' real incomes was also supported by social and cultural development and housing construction funds. Significantly more time and opportunities for improving the cultural and technical level, organizing leisure activities for workers appeared in connection with the transition to a five-day working week with two days off.
In the 70s, the working class of the DASSR generally underwent the same quantitative and qualitative changes as in the working class of other republics and the country as a whole. There was an increase in the qualification of workers, their general education level, and a change in the nature and content of work. There was an increase in the number of highly skilled workers, whose activities are dominated by operations that require mainly intellectual labor (monitoring automatic machines or performing work with machines and mechanisms). The share of this category of workers in Dagestan increased from 35.9% in 1969.
21 Narodnoe khozyaistvo Dagestanskoy ASSR k 50-letiyu obrazovaniya SSSR [National Economy of the Dagestan ASSR to the 50th anniversary of the formation of the USSR].
22 National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, p. 156.
23 Ibid., p. 28.
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up to 37.1% in 1979. In a number of industries, these indicators were even higher: mechanical engineering and metalworking - 46.2% and 47.3%; woodworking - 24.9% and 53.9%; construction materials-47.8% and 51.8% 24, etc.
In quantitative and especially qualitative terms (concentration of production, concentration of workers in large enterprises, high level of organization and consciousness), industrial workers form the core of the working class. In 1979, enterprises with 501-1000 workers and production personnel accounted for 8.7% of the total number of enterprises and produced 16.5% of the gross industrial output; 1001-1000 people - 9.1% and 23%, respectively; 3001-5000 people-1.3% and 6.5%; 5001 and more people-0.9% and 16.9% 25 . The share of products produced by large enterprises was significantly higher than their share in the total number of factories. At the same time, a significant part of the workers and production personnel of the DASSR were employed in small enterprises of the city and village and in state farms. For example, in 1979, industrial enterprises with an average annual production staff of up to 50 people accounted for 27.4% of the total number, and from 51 to 100 people-17%. 26 As a rule, such enterprises were characterized by a lower level of professional and technical training of workers.
On the basis of scientific and technological progress and specialization of production in Dagestan, as in other regions of the country, at the time under review, large production and scientific-production industrial associations were created. In 1975-1979, their number increased twofold. 14 associations (62 production units and enterprises) employed 25% of industrial and production personnel and produced 28% of gross production27 .
Thus, in the conditions of developed socialism, important social changes took place in the working class of the DASSR, in its intra-class groups, associated with the further development of industry, scientific and technological progress, and an increase in the industrial, technical, educational and cultural level of workers. These changes were aimed at increasing the political and social authority of the working class, the leading force in socialist society.
Great structural changes were also taking place in the other main class of our country, the collective - farm peasantry. Along with the working class, it takes an active part in the development of the productive forces and the improvement of all aspects of social life. "With the industrialization of agricultural production," the report of the Central Committee of the CPSU to the XXVI Party Congress noted, " profound changes are taking place in the life of the collective farm peasantry. His work is gradually becoming closer to that of the workers. " 28
Broad measures for the intensification of agricultural production, including collective farm production, and its integrated development are outlined in the Food Program of the USSR adopted by the May (1982) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, as well as in the decisions of the November (1982) and April (1984) Plenums of the Central Committee. The implementation of the party's agrarian policy, emphasized K. U. Chernenko, General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, at the All-Union Economic Conference on the problems of the agro-industrial complex, " requires new approaches, a decisive improvement in the activities of agro-industrial associations, and an increase in the level of the entire economy."
24 Ibid., pp. 148, 149.
25 Calculated based on the materials of the current archive of the SU DASSR.
26 National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, p. 38.
27 Ibid., p. 22.
28 Proceedings of the XXVI Congress of the CPSU, pp. 52-53.
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economic work, the widespread introduction of self-financing, collective contracting, and the use of other economic levers. In general, improving everything that we understand by management and economic mechanism " 29 . The decisions adopted by the party aim rural workers to overcome existing shortcomings and accelerate the pace of agricultural development.
Relying on the enormous assistance of the Soviet state, Dagestan's agriculture also developed along the path of industrialization, the rise of productive forces, the formation of the agricultural and industrial complex, and the convergence of the collective-farm and state sectors on this basis. The transformation of collective farms into state farms, the consolidation of small farms - interrelated measures implemented at approximately the same time, led to changes in the total number of collective farms and collective farmers. In the 60s and first half of the 70s, collective farms were enlarged and the number of households in them increased. If in 1960 there were 227 households per collective farm, in 1975 -276. In 1976-1979, these figures remained roughly at the same level, with a slight decrease (266 households per collective farm) by 1979,30 The number of collective farms in the republic decreased from 749 in 1960 to 251 in 1979, and the total number of collective farm households from 170.2 thousand to 62.3 thousand, or 2.6 times 31 .
These processes are associated with changes in the share of collective farms in the production of gross agricultural output. If all categories of farms in the republic in 1979 produced gross agricultural output by 558.6 million rubles, then collective farms - by 114.6 million rubles. Nevertheless, collective farms continued to play an important role in the agricultural production of the DASSR: despite a significant reduction in their number, they produced more than 22% of gross production32 in 1979 .
The development of agricultural social production was facilitated by the expansion and strengthening of its material and technical base. After the March (1965) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the energy capacity of the republic's agriculture increased by 5 times, and the power supply per agricultural worker-by more than 4.5 times 33 . The number of tractors, combine harvesters and trucks increased. Compared to 1966, the number of tractors increased by 179.5%, combine harvesters-by 128.8%. In 1980, more than 11,000 tractors (in physical units), over 1,8 thousand combine harvesters, 6,000 trucks, and many other machines and machines34 worked on collective and state farms .
The development of productive forces in agriculture led to an increase in labor productivity and, consequently, to a decrease in the number of collective-farm peasants. This natural and generally progressive process was associated not only with the transformation of collective farms into state farms, but also with the growth of the technical equipment of collective farms, the transition of agriculture to industrial methods of labor organization. Intensification and specialization in agriculture reduced the needs of agricultural production for workers, freed up labor resources for other sectors of the national economy. 70s
29 Pravda, 27. III. 1984.
30 Calculated from: National economy of the Dagestan ASSR to: 50th anniversary of the formation of the USSR, p. 60, 136; National Economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, p. 59.
31 National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, p. 59.
32 Ibid.
33 Umakhanov M.-With I. Uk. soch., p. 76; Dagestanskaya pravda, 20. XII. 1980.
34 Calculated from: National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, p. 66; materials of the current archive of the SU DASSR.
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These processes were characterized by increased migration of rural residents and a decrease in the share of the rural population (from 70% in 1969 to 61% in 1979). However, these processes occurred against the background of absolute growth of the rural population of the DASSR: during the same period, it increased from 747.5 thousand to 988.2 thousand people .35 Similar phenomena occurred in the republics of Central Asia and Transcaucasia. The number of people living in rural areas in Tajikistan increased from 1959 to 1979 by 85.5%, Turkmenistan-by 76.1%, Uzbekistan-by 67.7%, Kyrgyzstan-by 57.9%, Azerbaijan-by 29.4%, Armenia-by 17.8%, Georgia-by 3.6%. In a number of other republics and in the country as a whole, the rural population has steadily declined, both absolutely and relatively. For 1959-1980. it has decreased by 10.6 million people, the share of rural residents in the total population of the country has decreased from 52 to 37% 36 .
The relatively high proportion of the rural population observed in Dagestan and a number of other republics cannot be explained unambiguously. Economic, social, and demographic factors affected this situation. In the DASSR, the areas allocated for viticulture, horticulture and vegetable growing, i.e. less mechanized and most labor-intensive branches of agriculture that require more workers, have increased. The development of land on the plain also contributed to maintaining a high proportion of rural residents by relocating some of the inhabitants of high-altitude areas and creating new state and collective farms. During the years of Soviet power, about 180 thousand farms moved to the plain, 37 which led to the involvement of an excessive part of the mountain labor resources in the national economy. Along with this, branches of large factories began to open in the latter, which ensured an increase in employment of the rural population.
The approach of rural living conditions to urban ones (continuous electrification, expanding the scope and increasing the level of household and cultural services, increasing availability of mass media, the spread of radio and television, the development of modern transport and roads, facilitating communication between villagers and citizens, and urban culture) influenced public opinion, which was previously oriented towards urban life. The focus on rural life was also supported by national traditions, historically formed specifics of the way of life, family ties and large families. According to the 1970 census, the average size of a rural family in the DASSR was 4.9 people (the national average was 4 people, the RSFSR average was 3.8) .38 According to the data of the 1979 census, the average size of the Dagestan rural family remained the same. These factors in one way or another influenced the preservation of a fairly high proportion of the rural population in the republic and had an impact on its growth.
The further progress of agriculture, the growth of its power supply, the intensification and mechanization of labor, the creation of large agro-industrial complexes imposed an increased demand for highly qualified workers, machine-building personnel, and specialists previously unknown to the village. In Dagestan, in 1979, there were 4 agro-industrial associations, 22 inter-farm organizations for fattening livestock, producing feed, sharing equipment, etc. 39 . If in 1965 in the republic was prepared not less than-
35 National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, p. 9.
36 Tyurina A. P. Sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoe razvitie derevnya v 1965-1980 gody [Socio - economic development of the village in 1965-1980]. Moscow, 1982, pp. 52-53, 63; Pravda, 22. IV. 1979.
37 Dagestanskaya pravda, 23. V. 1979.
38 Tyurina A. P. Uk. soch., p. 64.
39 Dagestanskaya pravda, 23. V. 1979.
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if there are more than 2 thousand machine operators, then since 1975-annually 5-6 thousand people. In total, from 1965 to 1979, about 33 thousand machine operators were trained 40 . There were new specialists for the village-livestock breeders on mechanized farms, master adjusters, repair locksmiths, machine milking masters, product processing workers, poultry breeders, etc. Their work was becoming more and more similar in nature to that of industrial workers; their work was increasingly a combination of physical and mental labor. The needs of the village for specialists of this kind increased every year, so there was a growing trend in this group of the rural population.
By steadily improving the welfare of the working people and equalizing the incomes of classes and social groups, the differences in distribution between workers and peasants were eliminated. While the real incomes of workers and employees (per employee) increased 3.9 times in 1979 compared to the pre-war period, they increased 6.7 times for collective farmers .41 The earnings of collective farmers and the corresponding categories of state farm workers also converged (and in many cases equalized). State measures such as improving pension provision and social insurance were aimed at improving the welfare of the collective farm peasantry. The size of collective farm workers 'pensions has come close to the level of workers 'and employees' pensions. Allocations for the payment of pensions and allowances to Dagestani workers increased 783-fold in 1979 compared to 1937 and amounted to more than 131 million rubles .42
Fundamental changes took place in the culture and life of the peasantry, in its social image. At the stage of developed socialism, rural life is characterized not only by an increase in the number of cultural and educational institutions, but also by an increase in the quality of cultural services provided to rural workers. In addition to the traditional radio, cinema, and amateur concerts, television and theater performances were firmly integrated into their everyday life during the period under review. Houses and palaces of culture continued to serve as centers for organizing leisure activities and spreading political and scientific knowledge. The number of libraries in rural areas increased from 704 in 1965 to 850 in 1979, clubs - from 915 to 1093, and cinema installations-from 697 to 1029 .43 Various workshops, ateliers, canteens and other service enterprises are widely used in the village. The increase in their number in rural areas was much faster than in urban areas. If from 1965 to 1979 the number of workshops and ateliers in the cities of the DASSR increased by 1.7 times, then in rural areas - by 2.8 times 44 .
The development of two friendly classes, the working class and the collective - farm peasantry, including their national detachments, at the stage of developed socialism follows the path of overcoming the essential differences between them. Their convergence is based on the complex mechanization and automation of production, the growth of the cultural and technical level of workers and peasants.
Significant changes are also taking place in the social structure of the Soviet intelligentsia. There is a rapid growth in the number and share of intellectuals and employees, i.e., employees who are professionally engaged in high-and medium-skilled intellectual labor. If
40 National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, p. 118.
41 Pravda, 21. XI. 1980.
42 Dagestanskaya pravda, 23. V. 1979; 24. VI. 1982.
43 National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, p. 185.
44 Ibid., pp. 172, 173 (author's calculation).
page 25
in 1960, the intelligentsia made up 10.4% of the country's population, and in 1980 - 23% 45 . These phenomena are also typical for the republics, including Dagestan. The number of specialists with higher and secondary specialized education in its national economy increased from 34.4 thousand people in 1960 to 117.5 thousand in 1979; the number of specialists with higher education, respectively, increased from 13.2 thousand to 49 thousand people, 46 or more than 3.7 times. Individual detachments of the republic's intelligentsia grew even faster. The number of researchers in the DASSR increased by more than 7.4 times from 1961 to 1980, agricultural specialists - by 11.4 times from 1960 to 1979, doctors - by 3.5 times, etc .47. The number of highly qualified specialists in the ranks of the intelligentsia has increased. If in 1961 there were only 6 doctors and 92 candidates of sciences in the republic, then in 1980 - 123 and 1303, respectively. Three Dagestani scientists became corresponding members of the Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Medical Sciences and the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR. Many specialists with academic degrees work in industry, agriculture and other sectors of the national economy of the republic.
In the conditions of developed socialism, workers and collective farmers remain one of the most important sources of replenishment of the intelligentsia. Of particular importance in this regard is the promotion of advanced, most trained people from among them to leadership positions. In the working class, the proportion of those who were engaged in work that was close to intellectual in nature was growing. The number of persons with higher education employed in the republic's industry increased in 1977 compared to 1965 in the electric power industry by 4.8 times, mechanical engineering and metalworking-by 3.1 times, chemical and petrochemical industry - by 9.2 times, fuel industry-by 3.8 times, forestry and woodworking-by 3.2 times, construction materials industry 5.5 times, light-2.3 times, food-3.2 times 48 . As can be seen from these data, the stratum of engineering and technical workers in the leading industries increased at a faster rate.
In the Dagestan village, the number of highly qualified workers grew, whose work was increasingly filled with intellectual content. Collective farm chairmen, state farm directors and their deputies, agronomists, veterinarians, animal technicians, economists, engineers, mechanics, accountants, farm managers, foremen and other representatives of the rural intelligentsia were engaged in highly qualified, intellectual work, which required special education. The decisions of the March (1965) and May (1982) Plenums of the Central Committee of the CPSU outlined measures to form a new type of leader in the countryside, increase the role of agricultural specialists, and raise the level of economic, political and social maturity of the rural intelligentsia. The number of specialists with higher and secondary specialized education in agriculture in the DASSR increased from 3,950 in 1965 to 13,827 in 197949 . In 1982, 84% of collective farm chairmen had higher and secondary agricultural education50 .
Quantitative and qualitative changes in the composition of the Soviet intelligentsia indicate an increase in its specific weight and role
45 See History questions. 1982, N 8, p. 12.
46 National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, p. 145.
47 National economy of the Dagestan ASSR to the 50th anniversary of the formation of the USSR, p. 177; Dagestanskaya Pravda, 20. XII. 1980; materials of the current archive of the SU DASSR.
48 National economy of the Dagestan ASSR for 60 years, pp. 145-146.
49 Ibid.
50 Dagestanskaya pravda, 24. VI. 1982.
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in the life of Soviet society. Its contribution to the development of the economy, to improving the educational and cultural level of our people is becoming more and more significant. The objective process of strengthening the union of the three main social forces of Soviet society - the working class, the collective - farm peasantry, and the people's intelligentsia-directed by the Communist Party ensures its development along the path of social homogeneity. Further improvement of the social structure of the U.S.S.R. nations and nationalities presupposes a consistent combination of their interests with the interests of the entire Union.
At the stage of developed socialism, important changes are also taking place in the composition of such population groups as women, youth, and pensioners.
In the conditions of those national republics of the USSR, where in the pre-revolutionary past the female part of the population was downtrodden and backward, the party continues to pay special attention to the involvement of women in socio-political and economic activities. In all sectors of the national economy of the DASSR, as in other republics of the country, women work productively on an equal basis with men. They make up more than 50% of workers and employees employed in the national economy of Dagestan, and in a number of industries - the vast majority of employees (in healthcare-80%, in trade and everyday life-63%). More than 160 women hold PhD and doctorate degrees. Women actively participate in the activities of party, Soviet and public organizations of the republic. In the city and district committees of the party, they accounted for 32.1% in the period under review, and 50.6% among deputies of local councils. Many women hold responsible positions in republican institutions and organizations. 20 goryany women were awarded the title Hero of Socialist Labor for their selfless work, and many were awarded orders and medals of the USSR .51
Another social group of the DASSR population - young people - also actively participated in economic and social life in the 70s, successfully working in the field of economics, science, culture, etc .The scale of socio-political activity of young people is evidenced by the fact that in 1979 more than 33.2% of Soviet deputies were young people. 52
Pensioners, having the right to a well-deserved rest, are also largely engaged in industrial activities. In Dagestan, the number of persons who received pensions reached 66 thousand in 1937, and 296 thousand in 1979 .53 The increase in the number of pensioners was primarily the result of the party's social policy aimed at creating favorable conditions for people to work and relax, and improving their material well-being. Increasing the life expectancy of Soviet people, lowering the limits of the retirement age, providing pensions for collective farmers, providing benefits for assigning pensions to employees in a number of sectors of the national economy, increasing benefits and allowances to pensions, and other measures of the Soviet state allowed an increasingly wide range of people to use pensions and at the same time participate in labor activities.
Thanks to the social policy of the Communist Party and the Soviet State, the main goal of which is to raise the material and cultural standard of living of the people in every possible way by overcoming the existing differences between the city and the countryside, expanding mutual assistance of the working class, collective farm peasantry and Soviet intelligentsia, new frontiers have been achieved in the economic and social development of Dagestan, Social structure-
51 Ibid., 9. VII. 19,82.
52 Ibid., 23. V. 1979.
53 Ibid.
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The republic's culture in the period under review corresponded to the social structure of the country as a whole. At the same time, certain features remained in the republic: a slightly different quantitative ratio of classes and social groups, urban and rural populations, some differences in the content and degree of distribution of skilled and unskilled labor, in the dynamics of population reproduction, etc.
The 1970s were marked by significant achievements in industry, agriculture, culture and science, which led to important changes in the classes and social groups of the population. There was an absolute increase in the number of the working class, with a particularly high rate in those sectors on which technical progress depends in the entire national economy. The agricultural group of workers of Dagestan has grown significantly. The increase in the share of the working class in the population of the republic reflects an increase in its leading role in the life of society. The kolkhoz peasantry, although reduced in number, continued to play an important role in agriculture and the socio-economic life of Dagestan. The number of machine operators ' cadres increased, and new specialties appeared that were not typical for the village before. Along with the growth of the collective farm economy, important changes took place in the entire social structure, life and way of life of collective farmers. There was an increase in the number and share of intellectuals and employees in the population of the republic. At the same time, the stratum of highly qualified specialists - scientists, agricultural specialists, doctors, etc. - grew at a particularly high rate in the intelligentsia.
The changes in the social structure of Soviet Dagestan are a vivid example of the fruitfulness of the transformations that are being carried out in our country at the stage of developed socialism and contribute to strengthening the social, ideological and political cohesion of the Soviet people. The documents and materials of the XXVI Congress of the CPSU, subsequent Plenums of the CPSU Central Committee, and other party documents outline a consistent program for achieving social homogeneity in Soviet society. "The Party and the state contribute to the strengthening of social homogeneity and pursue a consistent policy of further erasing the essential differences between the city and the countryside, as well as between mental and physical workers." 54 The changes that took place in the social structure of the Dagestan ASSR in the 70s indicate that this process is due to the Leninist national policy of the CPSU, friendship and mutual assistance of all the peoples of our country and is aimed at strengthening the social homogeneity of society.
54 On the 80th anniversary of the Second Congress of the RSDLP. Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU. March 31, 1083, Moscow, 1983, p. 7.
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